Numerical Simulation of Fire Spread Based on Billboard Burning in Airport Terminals

Due to the large number, large size and wide distribution of billboards built-in airport terminals, they easily become ignition sources and fuses that promote the spread of fires after the fire, and such fire hazards are often ignored. To study the spread of airport terminal fires caused by billboards, the combustion test of 12 common billboard materials Polyethylene Glycol Terephthalate (PET) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) was carried out by monomer combustion experiment. Then, the experimental data were substituted into the FDS simulation software to simulate and verify the fire in the airport terminal, and the fire development, smoke diffusion, visibility change, CO generation and temperature change were studied. The results show that the scope of fire spread to the airport terminal after the burning of advertising materials is spatially limited, which is related to the location and height of the fire source of the billboard. The large amount of smoke the fire generates forms an inverted cone plume shape, and the phenomenon of roof jet and smoke settlement will occur. The temperature of the smoke that spreads to the ceiling reaches 300°C, reaching 3/8 of the area on the second floor of the terminal at 700s. The smoke hazard of the floor above the ignition point is much greater than that below the ignition point, and the horizontal spread rate of smoke above the ignition point accelerates with the increase of floor height. Visibility analysis showed that visibility near the roof and near the fire source was low, and the visibility level had little impact on the escape of personnel. As the fire develops, the farther away from the fire source, the faster the CO volume fraction of the floor reaches the critical value. This study provides a theoretical basis and data support for the fire safety assessment of the multi-functional public area of the terminal.

The airport terminal is an important large-scale infrastructure for civil aviation transportation and urban construction, and it is the most densely populated area of the airport [1-3]. To meet the functions of personnel guidance, publicity and business in the terminal, the billboard has become a permanent facility in the airport terminal. The installation of these billboards not only increases the combustibles in public areas but also easily becomes an ignition source and a fuse that fuels the spread of fire after a fire occurs due to its large number, large size and wide distribution. In recent years, there have been many fire accidents at home and abroad due to the burning of billboards in airport terminals, and the fire hazards caused by such fires are greater and the consequences are more serious, but such fire hazards are often ignored [4-7]. Therefore, it is necessary to study the fire in the airport terminal caused by the billboard in order to improve the fire safety system performance of the terminal.

At present, fire risk research mainly relies on two methods: single combustion experiments and numerical simulation. In the monomer combustion experiment, the full-size monomer combustion experiment can reflect the combustion characteristics of fuel. However, the economic cost of carrying out the monomer combustion test is high, and it is also limited by the experimental conditions. At the same time, due to the different types of combustibles on billboards, they have different characteristics such as ignition temperature, thermal conductivity, unit heat release and smoke release. In the combustion process, there are different fire and combustion characteristics, so it is necessary to carry out special combustion research for the specific structure of billboards. At present, there are two main types of billboards commonly used in airport terminals: print billboards and advertising light boxes [8]. Based on the analysis of the internal composition of billboards, scholars have studied the fire caused by the combustion of light sources, connecting wires, and power sources [9-12]. However, in comparison, the thickness of advertising materials is relatively thin [13], and the contact area with the outside air is large. Once the fire source appears, it will first ignite the advertising materials, and then spread to the combustibles inside and around the billboard, resulting in more serious fire severity and consequences. At present, the commonly used types of billboard materials are Polyethylene Glycol Terephthalate (PET) and Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), therefore, this paper uses 12 commonly used types of billboard materials, Polyethylene Glycol Terephthalate (PET) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) conducts monomer combustion experiments to obtain the relevant parameters of the combustion of billboard materials.

For the analysis of fire dynamic load in airport terminals, FDS was used to construct a fire risk modeling system. In recent years, many scholars have used FDS to carry out a fire risk analysis of airport terminals, and the simulation results can accurately reflect the fire spread and smoke diffusion during the occurrence of various fires [14-17]. Sha-sha Y, et al. [4] used FDS to carry out full-scale modeling and numerical simulation of shop shelves, bookstore shelves, check-in ordinary seats, business tables and chairs in the civil airport terminal, analyzed the correlation between fire load and temperature, and analyzed the impact of various fire loads on the occurrence of airport fires. Yang S, et al. [14] used FDS to simulate the fire in the airport terminal, and obtained the parameters such as smoke spread, temperature, CO2 and CO under two working conditions, with or without a sprinkler system, and the simulation results accurately reflected the dynamic process of the fire and provided support for the formulation of emergency plans. Hu LH, et al. [15] used CFAST and FDS to simulate the smoke-filling process in the domestic boarding-arrival corridor of an international airport terminal with an aspect ratio of about 52.3, focusing on the flame impact time, smoke temperature distribution, and temperature distribution during the airport fire. The above scholars have simulated the occurrence of fire accidents in airport terminals for different functional areas, and the simulation results of FDS can better reflect the dynamic evolution process of fire.

Based on this, this paper takes the billboard in the public area of the airport terminal as the research object to carry out the monomer combustion experiment and obtains the relevant characteristics of the combustion of the billboard material. In addition, the fire simulation software FDS was used to establish an equal scale model according to the single combustion experiment, and the numerical simulation of the combustion of combustibles was carried out under the same experimental conditions. This paper analyzes the dynamic evolution process of fire in airport terminals caused by the burning of billboards and provides a basis for fire prevention management in civil airport terminals.

Experimental results of monomer combustion

Before the numerical simulation of fire spread in the airport terminal, the monomer combustion experiment was carried out using 12 commonly used billboard materials in the terminal, Polyethylene Glycol Terephthalate (PET) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), which are commonly used in the terminal. The 12 billboard materials are marked as PET 1, PET 2, PET 3, PET 4, PET 5, PET 6, PVC 1, PVC 2, PVC 3, PVC 4, PVC 5, PVC 6.

Heat release: The heat release rate curves of 12 billboard materials are shown in figure 1, the combustion test of the material was carried out by the 5E-C5808 oxygen bomb calorimeter, which was measured 4 times and averaged, and the test results are shown in figure 2.

Figure 1: Material heat release rate diagram.

Figure 2: Material heat release rate diagram.

Smoke emission intensity: The smoke density tester is mainly tested by the SCY-1 building material smoke density tester, the working pressure of the fire system is 276 kPa, the fuel used is propane gas, and the timing device adopts a timer at 15s intervals to complete the determination of the smoke density of the material. The smoke emission density levels are shown in figure 3.

Figure 3: Smoke density grade.

Flue density: Figure 4 shows the change of material combustion flue temperature, after the ignition of 12 materials, the flue temperature first rises rapidly by 40°C, and then slowly rises to 45°C, to achieve the stable combustion process of the auxiliary burner

Figure 4: Temperature variation diagram of material combustion flue.

Numerical simulation of single-combustion fire

Model building: To verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the simulation, based on the monomer combustion experimental device and experimental results, the laboratory modeling was carried out at an equal scale, and some devices in the laboratory were simplified according to their functions, in which the simulation duration, detection data type and detection point location were consistent with the monomer combustion experiment, as shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: Physical model diagram of the combustion chamber.

Meshing and parameter setting: In this simulation, to reflect the actual situation of the fire and ensure the accuracy of the simulation results, the ratio of the diameter of the fire source feature to the grid size is taken as the minimum value of 4, and the δχ=0.0529 m is obtained, so the grid size is designed as 0.05 m × 0.05 m × 0.05 m. Based on the results of flammability and monomer combustion experiments on the combustion performance of advertising materials, according to the relevant requirements of the combustion performance of multi-story civil airport terminal interior decoration materials with an area of less than 15,000 m2, the combustible advertising material PET5 (positive blowtorch box piece) was selected as the fire numerical simulation material, and the power of the ignition source was consistent with the power of the main burner of the monomer combustion experiment, which was set to 30.7 KW, and the specific settings were shown in tables 1-3.

Analysis of simulation results: By comparing the experimental and simulated heat release rate curves in figure 6, it can be found that the overall trend of the two curves is rapid increase-rapid decrease-slow increase, and the simulated curve value is slightly behind the experimental curve. The peak value of the simulation curve is 13.38 kW, the peak value of the experimental curve is 11.46 kW, and the error of the peak value of the simulation curve and the peak value of the experimental curve is 16%, which is within the allowable range. The results show that the set parameters can better express the combustion performance of advertising materials, and provide advertising material parameters for the numerical simulation of advertising materials in the subsequent civil airport terminal scene.

Figure 6: Comparison diagram of simulated and experimental heat release rates.

Physical model

Based on a civil airport terminal building, and according to the architectural design drawings, on-site inspection and other series of data, the equal scale model is completed. The model has two layers, and the single-layer area is 6000 m2. The overall area of the terminal is 12,000 m2. The airport terminal model is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Model of airport terminal building.

Governing equation

In the FDS fire numerical simulation software, the mixed fraction model is used as the combustion model [18-20]. The mass equation is:

$\frac{\partial \rho }{\partial t}+\nabla \cdot (\rho u)={{\dot{m}}^{‴}}_b\text{ (1)}$

$\frac{\partial }{\partial t}(\rho Y_{\alpha })+\nabla \cdot \rho Y_{\alpha }u=\nabla \cdot \rho D_{\alpha }\nabla Y_{\alpha }+{{\dot{m}}^{‴}}_{\alpha }+{{\dot{m}}^{‴}}_{b,\alpha }\text{ (2)}$

In the formula, ${{\dot{m}}^{‴}}_b$ : fuel production rate.

The momentum equation :

$\frac{\partial }{\partial t}(\rho u)+\nabla \cdot \rho uu+\nabla p=\rho g+f_b+\nabla {\tau }_{ij}\text{ (3)}$

In the formula, $f_b$ : external force.

The stress tensor ${\tau }_{ij}$ is defined as:

${\tau }_{ij}=\mu \left(2S_{ij}-\frac{2}{3}{\delta }_{ij}\left(\nabla \cdot u\right)\right)\text{ (4)}$

${\delta }_{ij}\text{=}\{\begin{array}{cc}\text{1}& \text{i=j}\\ \text{0}& \text{i}\ne \text{j}\end{array}\text{ (5)}$

$S_{ij}\text{=}\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{\partial u_i}{\partial x_j}+\frac{\partial u_j}{\partial x_i}\right)i,j=1,2,3\text{ (6)}$

Energy equation:

$\frac{\partial }{\partial t}(\rho h_s)+\nabla \cdot \rho h_{s}u=\frac{Dp}{Dt}+{\dot{q}}^{‴}-{{\dot{q}}^{‴}}_b-\nabla \cdot {\dot{q}}^{″}+\epsilon \text{ (7)}$

The apparent enthalpy can be expressed as a function of temperature

$h_s={\displaystyle \sum _{\alpha }{Y}_{\alpha }}{h}_{s,\alpha }\text{ (8)}$

$h_{s,\alpha }\left(T\right)={\displaystyle {\int }_{T_o}^T{c}_{p,\alpha }(T^{\prime })d{T}^{\prime }}\text{ (9)}$

Meshing and boundary conditions

Different grid sizes are set for different areas of the airport terminal, and the grid size near the fire advertising material is set to 0.05 m × 0.05 m × 0.05 m. The grid size of other regions is set to 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m, and a total of 16 grid regions are divided, with a total number of 2248000 grids. Parallel computing is used for grid numerical calculation. In PyroSim software, the definition of material properties of a solid model is realized by surface setting, and the setting of material parameters affects the accuracy of the simulation [21]. The simulation parameters related to the material settings for the advertising material are shown in table 4.

When using FDS software for fire numerical simulation, the relevant parameters affecting the simulation process and results should be set. As shown in table 5, the fire source is located in the south area of the second floor of the airport terminal, and the fire source is set directly below the advertising material. According to the existing fire accident cases of civil airport terminals, there is a failure of fire extinguishing system. To understand the maximum fire risk of advertising materials, the fire extinguishing system is set to a failure state. Slices are set at the center of the fire source, X = 156 m and Y = 136 m, to measure temperature and visibility. Slices are set at a height of 1.5 m from the ground to measure visibility.

Fire spread analysis

The spread of smoke and fire can reflect the true situation of a fire in an airport terminal. Figure 8 is the fire and smoke state diagram at different time points after the burning of advertising materials in the civil airport terminal. When the fire occurs for 60s, the flame is small, the amount of smoke generated is small, and only the advertising material is burned, but the smoke spreads rapidly, and a small amount of smoke is diffused over the fire location. In the 100-400s period, the advertising material continues to burn and ignite the wall insulation material, the fire growth is not large, but the smoke production continues to increase, affecting the normal breathing of the people around the location. In the 500-700s, the fire ignites the stores below the advertising light box through the insulation material, and the fire increases instantly. After the flame spreads to the store, it ignites all kinds of flammable and combustible materials in the store, enlarging the scope of the fire and generating a large amount of smoke. Due to the long distance between the store and other stores, the fire cannot be spread to the surrounding stores to avoid further spread of the fire.

Comparing and analyzing the fire spread diagram at different time points in figure 8, it can be seen that the fire spread range after the combustion of advertising materials had limitations in space. As the size of the ignition source continues to expand, the speed of smoke spread decreases. This is because the fire of the billboard burns continues to grow, the amount of oxygen required increases dramatically, and the smoke produced by the burning of the billboard inhibits the further development of the fire source to a certain extent. After the fire, a large amount of smoke will continue to be generated, and the smoke first flows along the fire source to the area directly above. The smoke volume gradually expands during the ascent process, forming an inverted conical smoke plume. The smoke plume quickly flows upward to the ceiling of the terminal building and then gradually spreads along the ceiling to form a ceiling jet. As the combustion continues, the flue gas continues to spread upward, and the thickness of the flue gas layer gradually increases. Because the flue gas cannot be discharged from the top, the flue gas layer will settle.

Figure 8: Flame and smoke spread diagram.

Temperature distribution analysis

Temperature is one of the important indicators to measure the strength of a fire. Figure 9 shows the temperature distribution at the center of the fire source (x = 156 m). With the increase of fire time and the expansion of the firing range, the temperature at the center of the fire source gradually increased from 20°C to 950°C, and then no longer increased. Among them, the temperature inside the store is the highest, and the smoke temperature outside the store is lower. Because the fire in the shop is limited by the building wall, the temperature of 600°C is limited to the advertising light box and the shop directly below the lightbox, and the temperature of the external area is lower than 600°C. The smoke generated by the fire also has a certain amount of heat. It can be seen from the temperature distribution map at 700 s that the temperature of the smoke spreading to the ceiling can reach about 300°C, and the temperature gradually decreases during the diffusion process. The fire resistance of the steel structure is poor, and the high-temperature flue gas will cause the steel structure in the terminal to lose its bearing capacity, which will lead to the imbalance of structural stress and collapse in severe cases. When the flue gas temperature reaches 250°C, the plasticity and toughness of the steel structure can be reduced, the surface oxide film becomes blue, and the phenomenon of blue brittleness occurs. When the flue gas temperature reaches 300°C, the yield point and ultimate strength of the steel structure can be significantly reduced. Therefore, for civil airport terminals and other places with large-span structures such as grid structures, reticulated shells, and pipe truss structures, it is recommended to pay attention to the fire protection measures of steel structures in the process of design review and acceptance.

Figure 9: Temperature distribution at the center of the fire source (X = 156 m).

Figure 10 shows the temperature distribution at the center of the fire source (y = 156 m). The high-temperature area is mainly distributed in the upward rectangular area at the center of the fire source. The temperature gradually decreases from bottom to top. The ceiling temperature reaches about 300°C, and the spread to both sides is not obvious. The maximum temperature does not reach 800°C, which is different from the maximum temperature at the center of the fire source in figure 9. This is because the thickness of the advertising material is thin, the heat released by combustion is less, and it can only reach about 70°C during combustion. However, there are many combustibles in the shop, and the fire load is large.

Figure 10: Temperature distribution at the center of the fire source (Y = 136 m).

Flue gas diffusion analysis

Because the smoke in the fire inside the building is most likely to affect the respiratory system of the people inside the building, causing great harm to the human body and affecting the escape of the people. To understand the overall spread of smoke, the delayed spread is observed from the high-altitude overlooking angle of the civil airport terminal.

Figure 11 is the top view of smoke diffusion in the civil airport terminal. With the increase in fire occurrence time, the range of smoke spread gradually increases. At about 500s, it spreads to 1/4 of the second floor of the civil airport terminal, and at 700s, it spreads to 3/8 of the terminal's second floor. The spread range is mainly distributed on the south side of the second floor, and less spreads to the north side of the second floor. This is due to the natural ventilation conditions, and the mechanical ventilation device is installed in the middle of the west side of the second floor, which changes the spreading path of the flue gas and promotes the flue gas to spread to the east side. Therefore, the flue gas spreads rapidly in the lateral direction, and is affected by ventilation during the spreading process, and spreads less to the north area.

Figure 11: Cloud diagram of flue gas diffusion.

Visibility analysis

Visibility is the farthest distance that the human eye can see in a given space. For confined spaces, visibility determines the efficiency of safe evacuation. Figure 12 shows the visibility distribution of X = 156 slices at different time points at the center of the fire source. From 100s, the visibility below 20 m showed a 'T' shaped distribution. The visibility 'T 'shaped area below 20 m continuously expands around with the fire. This is because the fire plume first spreads upward after the fire occurs, forming an inverted conical plume. After reaching the ceiling, it develops along the ceiling to both sides, and the ceiling jet phenomenon occurs. The civil airport terminal ceiling is high in the middle, around the low uplift shape. Therefore, the smoke from the fire spread upward and continued to spread to the center of the ceiling. The visibility from the ceiling above the fire source to the center of the ceiling gradually decreases, and the visibility of the rectangular area above the fire source gradually decreases to less than 5 m with the occurrence of the fire.

Figure 12: Nephogram of visibility distribution at the center of fire source (X = 156 m).

Figure 13 shows the visibility distribution of Y = 136 slices at different time points at the center of the fire source. Combined with the analysis of figure 12, it can be seen that the visibility below 20 m is an inverted cone in three-dimensional space, and the lower the height, the lower the visibility. The visibility from the top of the fire source to the ceiling of 5 m × 5 m × 12 m (X, Y, Z) is below 5m. Above the location of the fire source to the ceiling 5 m × 5 m × 12 m outside the area only close to the ceiling within the scope of 1m visibility is low, visibility in the range of 15 m-1 m. Above the location of the fire source to the ceiling 5 m × 5 m × 12 m outside the area only close to the ceiling within the scope of 1m visibility is low, visibility in the range of 15m-1m. Because the height of the second floor of the civil airport terminal is more than 12 m, the visibility of the ground is less affected, and only the visibility of the spatial range of 5 m × 5 m × 12 m around the fire source is low.

Figure 13: Nephogram of visibility distribution at the center of fire source (Y = 136 m).

Figure 14 shows the visibility cloud map at different time points at a height of 1.5 m on the ground. The smoke at a height of 1.5 m blocks the line of sight of the personnel, which has a great impact on the escape and activity of the personnel. Through the comparison of visibility cloud maps at different time points in figure 8, it can be found that the visibility in the range of 5 m × 10 m decreases with the increase of time with the fire source position as the center. When it is reduced to less than 12m in 700s, it has a greater impact on personnel activities within this range, and beyond this range, it has less impact on personnel activities. This is because the roof of the second floor is higher, and the smoke first spreads upward, then spreads from the roof to the surrounding area, and then extends downward after spreading to the whole top floor. However, the vertical height of the civil airport terminal is high and the overall space is large, so it is difficult to make a large amount of smoke settle to the height range of 1.5m. Therefore, only the visibility of the area around the fire source is low at a height of 1.5m above the ground, and the visibility of other areas is above 29m. Combined with the above analysis, it can be seen that the visibility near the ceiling is low, the visibility near the fire source is low, and the visibility level has little effect on personnel escape.

Figure 14: Nephogram of visibility distribution at the center of fire source (Y = 136 m).

In the fire with the advertising materials of the airport terminal as the ignition point, the range of fire spread has limitations in space. A large amount of smoke generated by the fire forms an inverted conical smoke plume, and ceiling jet and smoke deposition occur.

The temperature distribution analysis shows that the temperature of the smoke spreading to the ceiling can reach 300°C, and the temperature gradually decreases during the diffusion process. The high-temperature flue gas has a certain impact on the steel structure in the terminal building. In the process of design review and acceptance, attention should be paid to the fire protection measures of the steel structure.

Visibility analysis shows that the smoke spread rapidly laterally, reaching 3/8 of the second-floor area of the terminal at 700s. During spreading it is affected by ventilation and spreads less to the north side of the area. The visibility near the roof is low, the visibility near the fire source is low, and the visibility level has little effect on the escape of people.

The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by Central University Basic Research Fund of China (Grant No. BBJ2023015).

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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